Yue Shixuan (Li Yousheng)
(When this article was first posted on November 24, 2005, a minor glitch occurred, causing some text to be lost and garbled. Therefore, it is being reposted today with slight modifications.)
I have an English version of “Psychology of Religion,” in which the author dedicates two chapters to discussing the confusion and complexity of the definition of religion (1). To study religion using modern scientific methods, one must set aside the definition, find another way, and establish measurable indicators. I think the debate over whether Confucianism is a religion in China also reflects the complexity of the definition of religion itself. I also have another book, “The Great Dictionary of Religion,” which, after listing numerous definitions, defines religion as a system of shared beliefs and practices related to superhumans. Superhumans have extraordinary abilities and can create miracles; gods, ancestors, and spirits are only some forms of superhumans. Gods are supernatural, that is, outside the laws of nature, while superhumans can exist within the laws of nature. But this definition of religion makes it difficult to distinguish from culture (2).
However, religions do not necessarily believe in gods. Buddhism, for example, promotes atheism, so it is unnecessary to force the worship of heaven and ancestors into Confucianism. Worshiping heaven and ancestors is part of Chinese culture, and Confucianists can certainly do so, but this does not mean that worshiping heaven and ancestors is part of Confucianism. Similarly, it is unnecessary to forcefully cite numerous sources to prove that Buddhism believes in gods (3). I believe that Chinese scholars would not make baseless accusations, but countless textbooks and dictionaries do not list Buddhism’s belief in gods, and we do not need to overturn the consensus formed by scholars over many years. My aforementioned religious dictionary states that Confucianism is a worldview, a social ethic, a political ideal, and a scholarly tradition, but it does not mention Confucius’s worship of heaven and ancestors. However, both Confucius and Shakyamuni can be classified as superhumans, so they can still be categorized as religions.
I often tell people that Western civilization separates God, the world, and the self, introducing competition and creating a colorful material world, while Eastern culture emphasizes the unity of heaven and man, focusing on inner spiritual civilization. Since Plato, the West has classified spiritual concepts as another world outside of humanity. The unity of heaven and man, when it is on the heaven side, is the Indian tradition, and when it is on the man side, it is the Chinese tradition (4). I happen to have a sociology textbook (5) on hand, which states that the Hindu god is not an independent entity (specific entity), so the above statement is not my fabrication. But if we follow this line of thought, what represents Chinese civilization should be Taoism, not Confucianism. Confucianism pursues a political ideal and has a secular thought, so it is more reasonable to call it Confucianism rather than a religion.
Many Western textbooks list Confucianism as a religion, while when discussing the religious system of ancient China, they refer to it as Taoism, Buddhism, or even its “original religion.” The so-called “original religion” refers to the polytheistic religion that existed before the development of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Ancient Greece and Rome were both polytheistic, and the English term “pagan” signifies its distinction from the aforementioned three major religions. Lin Yutang, during his time living in the West, called himself a pagan, believing that the religious inclinations prevalent among Chinese literati constituted paganism. The religious situation in early and middle Rome was very similar to that in China, with a wide variety of temples scattered throughout the empire, freely chosen by the people. Early Christianity was suppressed by the Roman Empire, and Roman emperors issued decrees that those who worshipped other gods would be pardoned. This essentially forced them to convert from monotheism to polytheism. Ancient my country was polytheistic; a person could worship many gods simultaneously, visiting a Buddhist temple in the morning and a Taoist temple in the afternoon without feeling conflicted. It is conceivable that polytheism could easily lead to the existence of a supreme god or chief god, who is often high in rank but powerless, in contrast to the absolute authority of God in Christianity.
The status and influence of Christianity within Western governments in history can be compared to that of Confucianism within Chinese governments. Unlike Christianity, Confucianism was confined to scholars and never penetrated into ordinary society. China, however, was not influenced by Western monotheistic religions, and the common people remained in a polytheistic belief system, as evidenced by the blurred lines between Buddhism and Taoism in classic Chinese novels like *Journey to the West*. While China’s vast rural areas have numerous temples, comparable in density to churches in the West, Confucian temples are rare. I recall Lu Xun mentioning that when Chinese people encountered difficulties, they would go to Buddhist or Taoist temples to pray and worship, not to Confucian temples to burn incense. This shows that Confucianism and Buddhism/Taoism had different social functions in Chinese history and should not be confused. While Chinese people could pray to ancestors or other deities, Confucian temples did not serve this function. Even the Jia family in *Dream of the Red Chamber*, a place of learning and etiquette, with Jia Zheng being a Confucian disciple, still sought help from Buddhism and Taoism when facing difficulties, as seen when Feng Jie and others were ill.
Confucius himself respected spirits and deities but kept them at a distance, avoiding discussions of strange phenomena and supernatural beings. This suggests that he considered these to be outside the scope of Confucianism. In Confucius’s view, there was a vast space for cultural and religious development beyond Confucianism, which he left for others to explore. It’s difficult to know exactly what Confucius was thinking at the time, but I speculate that strange phenomena and supernatural beings—which are essentially today’s pseudoscience and spiritualism—show that Confucius had a profound understanding of spiritualism, and he didn’t want to delve into its scope. Many religious phenomena can be categorized under spiritualism, including the practice of ordinary Chinese people seeking divine intervention and worshipping Buddhas instead of visiting Confucian temples.
Modern scholars have almost reached a consensus that Western modern culture, since the Renaissance, has undergone a major abrupt change. The history of cultural evolution, like the history of biological evolution, is characterized by long periods of stability interspersed with sudden, radical shifts. One form of this radical phase is the replacement of old species by new ones, followed by a new period of stability. The last five hundred years have been a period of rapid progress and global spread of Western culture following this abrupt change. Western monotheism originated from Judaism, which is considered a spiritual response to the ancient Israelites’ herding of cattle and sheep, imagining a God who shepherds humanity. We can also consider monotheism as an abrupt change, not the conventional development of religion. The position and role of religion in modern society may be evolving; for example, the New Age movement popular in the West draws inspiration from Eastern religious traditions. This evolution in the West brings its religious culture closer to the Confucian tradition of respecting spirits while keeping them at a distance, and closer to the polytheistic tradition of ancient China.
The ancient Chinese concept of Heaven was not significantly different from the belief in Heaven or other similar supreme gods (high gods) around the world. This Heaven or supreme god was one of the gods in polytheistic religions, supreme and unparalleled, but with a vague form, a distant location, revered but powerless. People sought help from other, more approachable gods when facing difficulties. This also aligns with the Confucian attitude of respecting spirits and deities while keeping them at a distance. Even during the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese people did not cease their habit of calling upon Heaven when in trouble—a practice known as “returning to one’s roots when impoverished.” The word “Heaven” in “Heaven” seems to suggest a personal god, but the Heaven that the Chinese people call upon today is purely a vague and distant natural god, devoid of any form or personality.
When the *Analects* was first introduced to the West, Western scholars were greatly impressed by Confucius’s rational and reverent attitude towards the divine, and were astonished that China had developed such a rational view of life, far removed from the supernatural, at such an early stage. Confucianism undoubtedly played a significant role in the development of Western science and reason, leading to the later separation of politics and religion and the gradual erosion of religion’s dominant position in Western society. Today, reviving the Confucian tradition will undoubtedly contribute to the revitalization of the Chinese nation, but there is no need to reduce it to the level of ghosts and gods, nor is there any need to pit Confucianism against Buddhism and Taoism for popular followers.
In my opinion, Confucius’s greatest contribution was outlining and sanctifying the spiritual character of Chinese literati, enabling them to stand independently in the spiritual world, refusing to bow to any deity—the saying “a scholar can be killed but not humiliated.” However, Confucius did not similarly establish a domain for Chinese literati in the secular world of power struggles. The Cheng-Zhu school of Neo-Confucianism represents the culmination of this development. This is precisely the characteristic of all religions: a fascination with spiritual grandeur while forgetting the harsh realities of the world. Therefore, in this sense, Confucianism is the religion of Chinese literati—to borrow Marx’s words, the opium of Chinese intellectuals. I have absolutely no intention of belittling Confucianism here. Domestic scholars may lack sufficient understanding of the positive effects of religious spirit, while there is correspondingly more research in this area abroad. However, the idea that religious spirit can cure cancer is not new. This is beyond the scope of this article and will not be elaborated upon further.
literature
(1) Bernard Spilka et al(1985): The Psychology of Religion. Englewood Cliffs, USA: Prentice-Hall.
(2) Wendy Doniger (1999): Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of World Religions. Springfield, USA: Merrian-Webster.
(3) Li Shen: What is religion and the related debates on Confucianism. (Source: www.confucius2000.com)
(4) YS Li (2005): A New Interpretation of Chinese Taoist Philosophy. London, Canada: Taoist Recovery Centre.
(5) JJ Macionis, LM Gerber (1999): Sociology, Third Canadian Edition. Scarborough, Canada: Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon Canada.
author By Dr. You-Sheng Li
Share
